My thoughts!

A comedy is a type of drama that is intended to amuse, usually with a happy ending. The central character of a comedy is usually an ordinary character who faces conflicts that arise from misunderstandings or mistaken identities but overcomes them, and a play ends with the happy resolution. The classical comedy includes Greek writers such as Aristophanes, Menander and Cratinus; and Roman Comedian such as Plautus and Terence. The atmosphere of classical comedy is light and mirthful. It aims at evoking our laughter by dealing with common people. Its purpose was to correct manners and conduct. It imitated human beings as worse than the average. It tried to show the common errors of life in a ridiculous and scornful manner. Both Greek and Roman Comedy implies plays with happy endings. They often pitted two groups or societies against each other in an amusing conflict.

Classical tragedies are the first tragedies to come around as most of these tragedies came from ancient civilizations. Most of these tragedies however came from ancient Greece, and most of them depict epic battles that rage across the land. The writers of the classical tragedy includes Greeks, such as Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles; and Roman writers such as Seneca, Lucias, Accius and Pacueius. The Classical tragedy deals with the fate of characters of high birth and status such as kings, princes and their house chores. Its atmosphere is sombre and serious. It purges the emotions of pity and fear in the minds of the audience by raising these feelings. There is no mingling of the tragic and comic elements in a classical tragedy. It tries to purify the feelings and raises the audience bothering and spiritually. A distinctive feature of the classical tragedy is the use of chorus. It consisted of a group of characters who reported the things happening off the stage. They also made mo

          Introduction The Biographia Literaria an autobiography in discourse by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which he published in 1817. It was one of Coleridge's main critical studies. In this work, he discussed the elements of writing. The work is long and seemingly loosely structured, and although there are autobiographical elements, it is not a straightforward autobiography. Although the work is not written from Coleridge's poetic mind it is still written with the qualities and rhythm of the poetic. Through this discussion, he makes many value judgements, leaving his audience with a clear understand of his stance on certain issues. Some of the issues he tackles include politics, religion, social values and human identity. He expresses his own thoughts from a personal viewpoint.            Imagination Imagination in its real sense denotes the working of poetic minds upon external objects or objects visible to the eyes. Imaginative process sometimes adds additional

          Introduction As a critic T.S.Eliot was very practical. He called himself " a classicist in literature ". According to Eliot, a critic must obey the objective standards to analyse any work. He thought criticism as a science. Eliot's  criticism became revolutionary at that time. 20 century got 'metaphysical revival' because of Eliot. He first recognised or accepted the uniqueness of metaphysical poets of 17th century. Eliot came with new ideas in criticism's world in 19th century. Eliot believed that when the old and new will become readjusted, it will be the end of the criticism. He says: " From time to time it is desirable that some critic shall appear to review the past of our literature and set the poets and their poems in a new order ."  Eliot demands, from any critic, ability for judgement and powerful liberty of mind to interpret. Eliot planned numerous critical concepts that gained wide currency and had a broad influence on c

During Victorian age art, literature and criticism, were considered as an expression of those ideas and ideals which ennobled, elevated and enlightened life and society. The function of literature and criticism is so improve the quality of life. The Victorian writers and critics were divided into two groups on the issues of what exactly was the function of literature. One group was represented by Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin, who believes in 'Art for life's sake'. The another group was represented by Pater and Oscarwilde who believed in 'Art for Art's sake'. Ruskin and Carlyle did their best to explore morality underlying art and literature. Both were aware of the threat posed by science and industrialism to religion and morality and wanted literature and criticism to counter this. They consider arts and morals as interdependent and wanted art to serve morality. According to them there could be no good art unless it had some moral to present. Ruskin consider

          Introduction Thomas Stearns Eliot is a key figure in the English modernist poetic tradition. His innovative style and influential critical essays helped to establish new attitudes to literature. They drew attention to tradition, the importance of continuity, and the role of objectivity. In rejecting the poetic values of the previous century, Eliot, along with Yeats and Pounds, was to set new poetic standards.  Eliot's contribution to the English poetry tradition is significant. Eliot was no longer a man speaking to men as Wordsworth was, but a manipulator and creator of words and patterns. For Eliot, the high watermark of English poetry was the 17 century after which there was a steady decline which, he felt, had to be arrested by Eliot himself.        Concept of Impersonality Objective (impersonal) and subjective (personal)  were imported in the English criticism from the post-Kantian German critic of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. A

During the Victorian age both creation and criticism were closely related with life and society. Matthew Arnold felt that criticism must draw closer to life and make it nobler and better. It was the duty of the critic to bring the best that was thought and written to people's notice. The Victorian criticism is characterized by a battle of tastes between the Neo- Classical School of the 18th century and the Romantic School of the early 19th century. A subtle critic of the literary criticism in the Romantic age is found in the Victorian criticism. It reflects the changes that occurred due to the rise of democracy -shift to middle class, decline of religion, the progress of science and the evil effects of industrialisation. The question as to 'what is the function of Criticism? 'achieved significance in this age. The Victorian Criticism is primarily social criticism in its theme and style. It is basically journalistic in nature and is addressed to a wide reading public. The

          Introduction Aristotle's theory of tragedy is completely based on induction. The ample examples of citations that Aristotle uses in his text from the tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides, make the idea clear that his theory of this literary genre comes from his extensive reading of their tragedies, and the ideas are mere generalization of the commonalities in their tragedies. Thus it is interesting to see a theory that followed the genre for which it is actually theorized. But in modern times this theory has lost its importance with the development of different sorts of tragic plots ending with catastrophe. Now its significance is limited to the level of differentiating Aristotelian mode of tragedy from Non- Aristotelian mode. Aristotle defines tragedy as " the imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of embellishment, through action and not narrat

            Introduction Language is a construct human work in every day to express a wide range of emotions, ideas, concepts and actions. There are many major and minor theories of language learning. All the theories are psychological. There are several psychological theories regarding language learning. Some of these theories are- 1. Language Acquisition Device (LAD);  2. Theory of Acculturation Model; 3. The Behaviourist Theory; 4. The Cognitive Theory.  Noam Chomsky proposes that there is a theoretical language device somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a language. According to him in LAD, every child has the  instinctive mental capacity  that helps it to acquire second language. For this, Noam Chomsky is universally appreciated.  Theory of Acculteration Model was introduced by John Schumann. This theory describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new language while being completely immersed in that language.   Cognitivism of Learni

          Introduction Language is a construct human work in every day to express a wide range of emotions, ideas, concepts and actions. There are many major and minor theories of language learning. All the theories are psychological. There are several psychological theories regarding language learning. Some of these theories are- 1. Language Acquisition Device (LAD);  2. Theory of Acculturation Model; 3. The Behaviourist Theory; 4. The Cognitive Theory.  Noam Chomsky proposes that there is a theoretical language device somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a language. According to him in LAD, every child has the instinctive mental capacity that helps it to acquire second language. For this, Noam Chomsky is universally appreciated.  Theory of acculteration Model was introduced by John Schumann. This theory describes the process by which immigrants pick up a new language while being completely immersed in that language.   Behaviourist Theory of

The mother tongue, native or first language, is what a person has learned from birth and thus becomes the basis for social identity and becomes the medium of learning in school and society. Studies shows that 6 - 8 years of education in a language are necessary to develop the level of literacy and verbal proficiency required for academic achievement in secondary school. Children's ability to learn a second or additional local language and an international language such as English, French, or German, does not suffer when their mother tongue is the primary language of instruction throughout primary school. Fluency and literacy in the mother tongue lay of cognitive and linguistic foundation for learning additional languages e.g. English language. When children receive formal instruction in their first language throughout primary school and then gradually transition to academic learning in the second language, they learn the second language quickly. If they continue to have opportun

Approach, method and technique are three synonyms words often used interchangeably. However, this synonymous words can be interpreted to portray different meanings.   Approach - An approach can be seen as our perspective, ideology, believe or theoretical stance on something. It encompasses a set of logical assumptions that could be made for better comprehension of issues. It could also be seen as a term that births your systematic plans and the strategies that we'll use to achieve particular objectoves. It describes how people acquired their knowledge of the language and makes statements about the conditions which will promote successful language learning. It is much wider concept than a method and technique. It describes how a language is used and how its constituent parts interlock.   Method - Method is considered the practical realization of an approach. It is a target plan or set of orderly procedures that are based on a credible approach. It reveals what needs to be done

While testing can be useful as an assessment tool, researchers suggests that the actual process of taking a test can also help us to learn and retain new information over the long-term and apply it across different contexts. New research explores the nuenced interaction between testing, memory, and learning and suggests possible applications for testing in educational settings. Appropriate multiple choice tests can foster test including learning. The multiple choice tests had one potentially important advantage over tests in which only the question is presented. Multiple choice tests help the testees to recall information related to incorrect alternative. Testing also engances the transfer of learning. Many studies have shown that having to retrieve information during a test helps you remember that information later on. It promotes not only the direct retention of information but also the application of knowledge to new situation. Testing can also strengthen short-term memory for c

Reliability and validity seems to be synonymous, but they do not mean the same thing. They are actually different things, different terms when they are explained in a technical manner. Reliability is when your measurement is consistent. It means if you are using a certain kind of instrument for a test and the results on the subjects you are testing is the same for the first and second try, then it is considered reliable. If reliability is more on consistency, validity is more on how strong outcomes of the hypothesis are. It answers the questions 'are we right?' This means if there is a social experiment on a class concerning discipline and then after the experiment the class became more disciplined, then the strength of the conclusion is very strong. This means the validity too is strong. There are some of the differences between reliability and validity and reliability is more on the consistency of a measurement, while validity is focused more on how strong the outcome of t

          Test Techniques Test techniques means of eliciting behaviour from candidates that will tell us about their language abilities. We need techniques that:  will illicit behaviour which is reliable and valid indicator of the ability in which we are interested. will illicit behaviour which can reliably scored. are as economical of time and efforts as possible.  will have a beneficial backwash effect, where this is relevant.        Types of test techniques a.  Informal testing Informal testing is carried out to evaluate and observe the learners. This is done by giving the learners homework assignment and asking them to solve the textbook exercises. The teacher can also ask learners questions during the routine give and take of the classroom lessons. The teacher can also take surprise test and dictations to evaluate the level of their knowledge. For example, the teacher can carry out informal test of the learner during speaking activities throughout the cours

Assessment and testing are often used interchangeably. When developing instruction, it's important to know what the difference is between assessment and testing. Assessment is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skills, attitudes and benefits. By taking assessment, teachers try to improve student learning. Almost everybody has experienced testing during his or her own life. Grammar test, driving licence test etc. A test is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine what that person knows or has learnt. It measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached. Test and assessment are used interchangeably, but they do mean something different. A test is a "product" that measures a particular behaviour or set of objectives. Meanwhile assessment is seen as a procedure in state of a product. Assessment is used during and after the instruction has taken place. After we've received the results o

Feedback is an important part of the assessment process. It has a significant effect on student learning and has been described as "the most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement"(Hattie, 1999). The main objectives of feedback are to: Justified to students how their mark or grade was derived. Identify and reward specific qualities in student work.  Guide students on what steps to take to improve. Motivate them to act on their assessment. Develop their capability to monitor, evaluate and regulate their own learning. To benefit student learning, feedback needs to be: a.  Constructive: As well as highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of a given piece of work, it should set out ways in which the student can improve the work. b.  Meaningful: It should target individual needs, building to specific assessment criteria, and he received by a student in time to benefit subsequent work. c. Timely: Give feedback while the assessed work is still fresh in a s